3  1822023494503 


3  1 822  02349  4503 


J     1970 


THE  UNIVEraiO-  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAllfl&WIA,  SAN  DIE 

LA  JOLLA,  CALIFORNIA 


The  Sacrifice  to  the  Morning  Star 
by  the  Skidi  Pawnee 

BY 

RALPH  LINTON 
Assistant  Curator  of  North  American  Ethnology 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


CHICAGO 

1922 


3RARY 

'ERSITV  OF 
LIFORNIA 

N  DIEGO 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY 

CHICAGO,  1922 
LEAFLET  NUMBER  6 

The  Sacrifice  to  the  Morning  Star 
by  the  Skidi  Pawnee 

The  religion  of  the  Pawnee  was,  in  some  ways, 
more  highly  developed  than  that  of  any  of  the  other 
Plains  tribes.  At  the  head  of  their  pantheon  stood 
Tirawa,  the  creator  of  the  universe,  who  seems  to  have 
been  conceived  of  as  a  purely  spiritual  being.  Below 
him  there  were  a  great  number  of  gods  of  varying 
importance  who  were  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
those  of  the  earth  and  those  of  the  heavens.  The 
former  were  inferior  in  rank  to  the  heavenly  gods,  and 
were  the  special  guardians  of  individuals  and  secret 
societies.  They  were,  for  the  most  part,  identified  with 
animals.  The  latter  were  the  guardians  and  helpers 
of  the  people  as  a  whole  and  were,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, identified  with  stars.  The  most  important  of  the 
heavenly  gods  were  the  Morning  and  Evening  Stars, 
who  represented  respectively  the  male  and  female  prin- 
ciple. The  first  being  on  earth  was  believed  to  have 
sprung  from  their  union.  A  fuller  account  of  Pawnee 
mythology  will  be  found  in  Leaflet  5  "The  Thunder 
Ceremony  of  the  Pawnee." 

The  ceremonial  side  of  Pawnee  religion  showed  an 
equally  high  development.  The  worship  of  the  heaven- 
ly gods  centered  around  collections  of  sacred  objects 
called  by  the  whites  sacred  bundles.  Each  village 
possessed  one  of  these  bundles,  and  there  were  others 
which  were  the  property  of  the  tribe  as  a  whole.  It 
was  believed  that  each  bundle  had  been  given  to  the 
people  in  ancient  times  by  one  of  the  heavenly  beings, 

[21] 


2  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

and  therefore  constituted  a  link  between  the  people 
and  its  divine  giver.  In  the  ceremonies  connected  with 
these  bundles  two  ideas  were  basic, — one  the  idea  of  a 
sacrifice  or  offering,  and  the  other  that  of  a  repetition, 
either  through  dramatization  or  ritual,  of  the  acts  per- 
formed by  the  divine  giver.  The  human  sacrifice  to 
the  Morning  Star  combined  both  ideas  to  an  unusual 
degree. 

The  Morning  Star  sacrifice  was  performed  only 
by  the  Skidi  band  of  the  Pawnee.  There  seems  good 
evidence  that  it  was  carried  out  somewhat  unwillingly, 
and  that  the  officiating  priests  always  found  it  a  sore 
trial.  Its  performance  was  considered  a  religious  duty, 
and  this  ceremony  must  not  be  confused  with  the  tor- 
turing of  captives  as  practised  by  several  of  the  east- 
ern tribes.  The  opposition  to  the  sacrifice  within  the 
tribe  itself  increased  until  in  about  1818  a  young  man, 
named  Petahlayshahrho,  rescued  the  victim  in  drama- 
tic fashion,  untying  her  from  the  scaffold  at  the  mo- 
ment of  sacrifice  and  riding  away  with  her.  When 
safe,  he  gave  her  a  horse,  and  sent  her  back  to  her  own 
people.  He  then  returned  and  declared  that  human 
sacrifices  must  cease.  As  he  was  a  distinguished  war- 
rior and  the  son  of  the  chief's  sister,  which  according 
to  the  Pawnee  system  gave  him  the  hereditary  rignt 
to  succeed  his  uncle,  many  strong  men  in  the  tribe  sup- 
ported his  action.  After  this  time,  the  ritual  of  the 
sacrifice  was  still  regularly  performed  as  a  formal  mat- 
ter, but  no  actual  sacrifices  are  known  to  have  taken 
place. 

The  actual  time  of  the  performance  of  the  sacri- 
fice is  not  fully  known,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  made 
in  the  late  spring  or  summer  of  years  when  Mars  was 
morning  star.  It  was  usually  made  as  the  result  of 
a  dream  or  vision  in  which  the  Morning  Star  appeared 
to  some  warrior  and  demanded  it,  but  it  might  also  be 

[22] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  3 

made  as  a  result  of  some  sign  in  the  star  itself,  as  when 
it  appeared  especially  bright,  or  in  years  when  there 
was  a  comet  in  the  sky.  It  might  also  be  performed 
without  any  direct  intervention  of  the  Morning  Star, 
if  some  warrior  had  captured  a  suitable  victim. 

In  this  ceremony  there  was,  coupled  with  the  idea 
of  sacrifice,  an  attempt  to  repeat  the  acts  performed 
by  the  Morning  Star  in  ancient  times.  These  acts  are 
recorded  in  a  number  of  myths,  not  always  consistent, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  good  example: — 

LEGEND 

'  A  long  time  ago  Tirawa  made  the  stars  and  gave 
them  great  power.  He  gave  most  of  his  power  to  the 
Morning  star,  who  had  a  younger  brother,  the  Sun. 
The  Morning  Star  helped  the  Sun  to  have  light.  When 
Tirawa  placed  the  stars  in  the  heavens,  they  were  just 
like  human  beings.  In  the  east  he  placed  those  stars 
which  were  like  men  and  gave  the  Morning  Star  and 
the  Sun  rule  over  them.  In  the  west  he  placed  those 
which  were  like  women,  with  the  Evening  Star  and  the 
Moon  as  their  rulers.  Each  had  their  village  in  the 
heavens,  and  the  eastern  stars  knew  that  the  western 
stars  were  women.  After  awhile  some  of  the  eastern 
stars  sought  the  western  stars  in  marriage.  When  the 
women  stars  saw  a  man  star  coming,  they  would  tell 
the  Moon,  and  she  would  go  out  to  meet  him.  She 
would  ask  him  why  he  came,  and  he  would  say,  "I  come 
to  marry  one  of  the  women."  She  would  answer, 
"That  is  what  we  want,  come  with  me."  They  would 
walk  together  till  they  came  in  sight  of  the  village. 
Then  the  Moon  would  stop  and  make  a  motion,  and  the 
ground  would  open  so  that  the  man  star  fell  through 
and  was  killed.  At  last  the  Morning  Star  decided  to 
go.  He  took  with  him  his  younger  brother,  the  Sim, 
who  carried  upon  his  back  a  sacred  bundle  with  a  war 
club.  As  they  traveled,  the  Morning  Star  went  before 

[23] 


4  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

the  Sun  just  as  he  still  does.  After  a  while  they  came 
within  sight  of  the  Evening  Star  village.  They  sat 
down  and  placed  the  sacred  bundle  in  front  of  them. 
From  where  they  sat,  they  could  see  the  women  stars 
playing  all  sorts  of  games  outside  their  village.  After 
a  while  the  Moon  came  to  them  as  she  had  come  to  the 
others.  She  asked,  "Why  do  you  come  here?"  The 
Morning  Star  said,  "It  is  now  time  that  we  mingle  and 
become  one  people.  It  is  not  right  for  part  of  us  to  be 
on  the  west  and  part  on  the  east  side."  She  said, 
"Good.  I  am  glad  you  came  and  brought  that  bundle 
which  you  have  in  front  of  you.  My  thoughts  are 
about  that  bundle."  She  invited  them  to  come  to  the 
village,  and  they  rose  and  followed.  When  they  had 
gone  a  little  way,  she  stopped  them,  and  the  Morning 
Star  saw  that  the  ground  under  them  was  cracking. 
The  Moon  called  to  them,  "Come  on!  Are  you  afraid?" 
The  Morning  Star  answered,  "No.  I  am  determined 
to  have  you."  He  took  the  war  club  from  his  younger 
brother  and  sang : — 

"I  become  myself  when  I  become  angry. 
With  the  war  club  I  strike  the  earth. 
I  strike  the  ground  and  undo  the  power  of  the  Moon." 

Then  he  struck  the  ground,  and  the  cracks  closed  up, 
and  it  became  firm.  The  Moon  cried,  "These  are  pow- 
erful men.  They  have  destroyed  my  mother."  By  her 
mother  she  meant  the  power  which  was  her  own.  Her 
powers  had  been  given  her  by  the  Evening  Star. 

After  the  first  obstacle,  they  went  on  until  they 
came  to  a  bed  of  flints  too  sharp  to  be  walked  over, 
then  to  a  thick  wood  of  locust  trees,  then  to  a  place 
where  it  was  very  hot,  then  to  a  bed  of  cactus,  then  to 
a  long  stretch  of  sword  grass.  At  each  of  these  ob- 
stacles the  Morning  Star  sang  his  song  and  struck  the 
ground  with  his  war  club  so  that  the  obstacle  disap- 
peared. When  they  had  passed  these  dangers,  they 

[24] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  5 

came  to  magic  animals  which  attacked  them,  first 
snakes,  then  water  animals,  then  buffalo,  and  last 
bears.  Each  of  these  in  turn  the  Morning  Star  killed 
with  his  club.  Then  the  Moon  had  no  more  powers 
left,  and  the  Morning  Star  and  the  Sun  entered  the 
village  of  the  women  stars.  The  Morning  Star  married 
the  Evening  Star,  and  the  Sun  married  the  Moon. 
They  took  them  back  to  their  own  village.  After  a 
time  a  child  was  born  to  each  couple,  and  these  children 
were  placed  on  earth.  They  married,  and  from  them 
sprang  the  human  race. 

The  Moon  put  all  these  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the 
Morning  Star,  because  she  did  not  want  the  people  on 
earth,  in  after  times,  to  live  forever.  All  these  ob- 
stacles were  sicknesses  and  troubles  which  would  be 
brought  down  upon  the  people.  But  the  Morning  Star 
and  the  Sun  can  give  power  to  men  to  destroy  these 
ills  just  as  they  themselves  destroyed  the  obstacles. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  sacrifice  was  most 
commonly  made  as  a  result  of  a  dream  or  vision  in 
which  the  Morning  Star  demanded  it.  Immediately  on 
waking  in  the  morning,  the  man  who  had  had  the 
dream  went  outside  his  lodge  and  began  crying  and 
mourning,  his  cries  gradually  becoming  a  song.  He 
sang : — 

"When  he  comes. 
When  he  comes. 
Father,  I  am  seeking  for  you." 

By  this  song  he  let  the  people  know  that  he  had  seen 
the  Morning  Star  in  a  vision. 

It  is  said  that  the  man  who  had  had  the  vision 
sometimes  did  not  obey  the  Morning  Star,  but  more 
often  he  could  neither  sleep  nor  rest  until  he  had  cap- 
tured a  maiden  for  sacrifices.  As  soon  as  possible 
after  the  vision  he  went  to  the  keeper  of  the  Morning 
Star  bundle  and  received  from  him  the  warrior's  cos- 

[25] 


6  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

tume  and  sacred  objects  kept  in  the  bundle  for  such 
expeditions.  Many  warriors  usually  volunteered  to  go 
with  him,  for  it  was  thought  that  the  object  of  the  ex- 
pedition insured  its  success. 

When  the  party  had  assembled,  they  set  out  for  the 
country  of  the  enemy,  sending  scouts  constantly  in  ad- 
vance. If  they  killed  any  game  on  the  way,  they  of- 
fered part  of  it  to  the  Morning  Star  to  remind  him 
that  they  were  on  his  business.  The  leader  carried  the 
sacred  objects  from  the  Morning  Star  bundle  on  his 
back. 

When  the  scouts  returned  with  word  that  they  had 
found  an  enemy  village,  the  party  retired  to  some 
sheltered  place  and  prepared  for  a  ceremony.  A  circle 
was  cleared,  and  a  fireplace  excavated  as  for  a  lodge. 
The  leader  then  opened  his  pack  and  put  on  the  sacred 
warrior's  costume,  and  laid  out  the  other  objects  to  the 
west  of  the  fireplace.  A  fire  was  kindled,  and  smoke 
offered  to  the  heavenly  gods.  All  then  sang  a  song 
symbolizing  the  overcoming  of  the  Evening  Star  by 
the  Morning  Star  and  how,  from  their  union,  a  girl 
was  born.  In  the  course  of  this  song  the  leader  rose 
and  circled  the  fireplace,  acting  in  pantomime  the  jour- 
ney of  the  Morning  Star.  At  its  conclusion  he  passed 
out  of  the  circle,  and  standing  facing  the  east  addressed 
the  Morning  Star  as  follows :  "I  am  praying  to  you  as 
you  directed,  and  we  are  seeking  a  sacrifice  as  you 
wished.  I  ask  you  to  show  yourself."  In  answer  to 
this  prayer  the  star  was  thought  to  shine  with  brighter 
light.  The  leader  then  addressed  his  party  thus : — 

"Warriors,  young  men,  we  are  now  sitting  in  a 
place  dedicated  to  the  Morning  Star.  We  are  about 
to  sing  the  song  that  the  Morning  Star  himself  sang 
when  he  was  in  search  of  a  woman,  who  put  obstacles 
in  his  way.  I  want  you  all  to  dance  with  all  your  might 
and  to  be  brave.  Whoever  shall  be  so  lucky  as  to  catch 

"   [26] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  7 

the  girl  must  call  her  Opirikuts  as  he  touches  her. 
Others  must  move  away  and  not  touch  her.  The  life 
of  anyone  who  touches  her  afterward  will  be  in  danger. 
Everyone  must  now  dance  toward  the  center.  Let  the 
fire  be  like  the  enemy." 

All  then  sang  a  song  symbolizing  the  obstacles 
overcome  by  the  Morning  Star,  the  refrain  being,  "This 
is  the  way  I  did  when  I  became  angry."  A  red-painted 
stick  like  those  used  in  the  Thunder  Ceremony  had 
meanwhile  been  prepared,  and  this  was  now  offered  to 
the  Morning  Star  by  the  leader  with  the  words,  "See, 
I  offer  you  only  this  stick  with  tobacco.  It  is  all  I  have. 
Help  me  to  obtain  a  real  sacrifice." 

By  the  end  of  this  ceremony  it  was  almost  time  for 
the  Morning  Star  to  rise,  and, the  leader  went  outside 
the  circle  to  the  east  and  addressed  a  long  invocation  to 
him.  He  then  returned,  and  all  put  on  their  war  paint 
and  ornaments.  A  fourth  song  was  then  sung  in  whicfr 
four  of  the  great  heavenly  spirits  were  called  upon  to 
give  the  warriors  their  powers.  As  they  sang,  the 
warriors  danced  around  the  fire,  leaping  upward  and 
giving  their  war  cries,  while  the  leader  ran  about  en- 
couraging them  to  dance  harder.  At  the  end  of  the 
dance  the  leader  made  a  last  prayer  to  the  Morning 
Star,  and  all  set  out  for  the  village. 

The  war  party  surrounded  the  village  quietly. 
The  leader,  who  at  this  time  was  considered  a  personi- 
fication of  the  Morning  Star,  took  his  post  to  the  east, 
with  his  back  to  the  village,  while  a  second  man  took 
his  place  at  the  southeast,  and  was  directed  to  howl 
like  a  wolf,  as  soon  as  the  Morning  Star  rose.  As  soon 
as  his  call  was  heard,  the  leader  turned  toward  the  vil- 
lage, and  the  attack  began  from  all  sides.  The  first 
man  to  capture  a  young  woman  touched  her  and  called 
out,  "I  pronounce  you  Opirikuts."  As  soon  as  this  was 
done,  the  attackers  drew  off  and  started  toward  home. 

[27] 


8  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

The  word  Opirikuts  was  both  a  dedication  and  a 
curse.  As  applied  to  the  destined  sacrifice,  it  was  the 
former,  and  protected  her  from  any  mistreatment. 
From  the  moment  it  was  pronounced  she  was  sacred  to 
the  Morning  Star,  and  any  one  touching  her  would 
die  as  from  an  infection.  She  was  turned  over  by  her 
captor  to  the.  leader  and  the  man  who  had  howled  like 
a  wolf,  who  represented  respectively  the  Morning  Star 
and  another  star  called  Fools-the-Wolves.  These  men 
were  responsible  for  her  until  the  arrival  of  the  party 
at  the  home  village. 

When  the  party  had  arrived  at  the  Pawnee  camp, 
the  girl  was  given  into  the  care  of  the  chief  of  the 
Morning  Star  village.  Several  months  sometimes  in- 
tervened between  the  tyne  of  her  capture  and  that  of 
the  sacrifice,  and  during  this  time  she  was  well  fed  and 
made  as  happy  and  comfortable  as  possible.  It  was  for- 
bidden, however,  to  give  her  any  new  clothing,  as  the 
giver  would  thereby  become  Opirikuts  also  and  die.  She 
was  fed  with  a  bowl  and  spoon  kept  in  the  Morning 
Star  bundle  for  the  purpose,  and  no  one  else  might  use 
these.  If  a  man  deliberately  broke  one  of  these  taboos 
and  died,  he  was  thought  to  have  taken  the  girl's  place 
as  a  sacrifice,  and  she  was  released  and  sent  back  to  her 
own  people.  If  she  escaped,  it  was  thought  a  sign  that 
the  Morning  Star  had  rejected  her,  and  she  was  not 
pursued. 

When  the  proper  season  for  the  sacrifice  had  ar- 
rived, the  chief  of  the  Morning  Star  village  had  all 
the  furniture  removed  from  the  interior  of  his  lodge 
and  sent  two  errand  men  to  summon  the  participants 
in  the  ceremony.  The  priest  of  the  village  came,  bring- 
ing his  sacred  bundle,  and  spread  out  its  contents  on 
the  west  of  the  lodge  to  form  an  altar.  With  him  came 
his  assistant,  usually  a  relative,  who  would  succeed  to 
the  office  on  his  death.  These  men  seated  themselves  be- 

[28] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  9 

hind  the  altar.  The  girl,  who  was  constantly  attended 
by  a  guardian,  was  brought  in  and  seated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  lodge.  The  chief  of  the  village  took  his 
place  on  the  southwest,  with  the  leader  of  the  war 
party  on  his  left,  while  the  man  who  had  actually  cap- 
tured the  girl  sat  on  the  northeast. 

The  priest  built  two  little  fires  of  sweet  grass,  one 
to  the  east,  and  the  other  to  the  west  of  the  fireplace. 
The  girl  was  taken  to  the  eastern  fire,  undressed,  and 
her  body  bathed  in  the  smoke.  Her  guardian  then 
painted  her  whole  body  red  and  dressed  her  in  a  black 
skirt  and  robe  which  were  kept  in  the  sacred  bundle  be- 
tween sacrifices.  The  man  who  had  captured  the  girl 
then  went  to  the  altar,  and  was  dressed  by  the  priest 
in  another  costume,  also  kept  in  the  bundle.  He  was 
given  black  leggings  and  moccasins,  his  face  and  hair 
were  painted  red,  and  a  fan-shaped  head-dress  of 
twelve  eagle  feathers  was  attached  to  his  hair  in  such 
a  way  that  it  stood  out  straight  over  the  back  of  his 
head  at  right  angles  to  his  body.  This  was  the  costume 
in  which  the  Morning  Star  usually  appeared  in  visions, 
and  with  its  assumption  the  captor  seems  to  have  be- 
come a  personification  of  that  deity. 

After  these  ceremonies  had  been  performed,  the 
captor  left  the  lodge  and  passed  through  the  village, 
entering  every  lodge  and  warning  those  who  were  to 
take  part  in  the  ceremony  to  come  to  the  chief's  lodge. 
Each  family  gave  him  a  little  red  and  black  paint  and 
certain  other  objects  which  were  needed  in  the  cere- 
mony. When  he  had  completed  the  circuit,  he  returned 
to  the  chief's  lodge,  and  errand  men  were  sent  out 
to  invite  the  chiefs  and  priests  of  all  the  villages  to 
come  to  the  ceremony.  The  Pawnee  village  was  a  so- 
cial as  well  as  a  geographical  unit.  Several  villages 
might  live  together.  Each  of  the  priests  and  chiefs 
had  his  prescribed  place  in  the  circle,  while  the  space 

[29] 


10  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

behind  them  was  packed  with  spectators.  So  great  was 
the  eagerness  of  the  people  to  see  the  ceremony  that 
many  of  them  tore  holes  in  the  roof  and  walls  of  the 
lodge,  leaving  it  a  complete  wreck. 

When  all  the  invited  guests  had  taken  their  places, 
the  chief  priest  told  the  priests  of  the  Four  Direction 
bundles  to  go  into  the  woods  and  bring  back  four  thick 
poles  about  twelve  feet  long.  The  priest  of  the  north- 
east was  to  bring  an  elm;  he  of  the  northwest,  a  box 
elder ;  he  of  the  southwest,  a  cotton  wood ;  and  he  of  the 
southeast,  a  willow.  When  they  had  returned,  the  four 
poles  were  laid  on  the  fireplace  with  their  ends  to- 
gether so  that  they  formed  a  cross  whose  arms  pointed 
to  the  four  directions.  The  poles  had  to  be  long  enough 
to  last  for  the  entire  four  days  of  the  ceremony,  and  as 
they  burned,  they  were  pushed  in  toward  the  center, 
the  cross  being  always  maintained. 

The  ceremonies  which  followed  are  not  fully 
known,  but  they  consisted  of  many  songs  and  dances, 
with  feasting,  and  continued  for  three  days  and  nights. 
During  this  time,  and  for  the  three  days  after  the  slay- 
ing of  the  sacrifice,  the  ordinary  rules  of  conduct  were 
set  aside,  and  the  priests  announced  to  the  people  that 
if  any  man  approached  any  woman  during  this  period, 
she  was  to  go  with  him  willingly,  that  the  tribe  might 
increase. 

Toward  morning  of  each  night,  the  representative 
of  the  northeast  village  danced  around  the  fireplace, 
and  taking  the  pole  brought  by  the  priest  of  that  di- 
rection, pointed  its  glowing  end  toward  the  girl's  body. 
This  was  repeated  by  the  representative  of  the  other 
directions  in  turn,  but  the  girl's  body  was  never  touched 
with  the  brand.  Indeed,  the  girl  was  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  consideration  throughout  the 
ceremony.  She  was  told  that  the  entire  performance 
was  given  in  her  honor,  and  everything  was  done  to  lull 

[30] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  11 

her  suspicions  and  keep  her  in  a  pleasant  frame  of 
mind. 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  fourth  day,  the  chief  priest 
selected  four  men  from  the  Four  Band  village  to  secure 
the  materials  for  the  scaffold.  Under  the  direction  of 
the  leader  of  the  war  party  which  had  captured  the 
girl,  they  went  to  the  nearest  thick  timber  and  searched 
until  they  found  a  hackberry  tree  near  the  center  of  the 
grove.  At  this  tree  they  made  an  offering  of  smoke  to 
the  gods,  and  then  went  northeast  from  it  to  find  an 
elm,  northwest  to  find  a  box  elder,  southwest  to  find  a 
cotton  wood,  and  southeast  to  find  a  willow.  These 
were  to  serve  for  the  lower  cross-bars  of  the  scaffold. 
They  then  went  east  until  they  found  an  elm  and  a 
cottonwood  large  enough  to  be  used  as  uprights.  Final- 
ly, they  went  west  and  cut  a  willow  to  serve  as  the  top 
cross-bar. 

When  the  men  had  departed  to  search  for  the  tim- 
ber, the  priests  sang  a  song  describing  their  actions. 
At  its  conclusion  the  chief  priest  sent  the  two  chiefs  of 
the  Morning  Star  village,  accompanied  by  a  warrior, 
to  select  the  site  of  the  scaffold.  This  had  to  be  some 
place  near  the  village  which  had,  to  the  east  of  it,  a 
depression  or  ravine  large  enough  to  conceal  several 
men.  When  the  chiefs  had  made  their  choice,  the  war- 
rior accompanying  them  gave  his  war-cry.  An  errand 
man  had  been  stationed  outside  the  lodge  to  listen  for 
this,  and  as  soon  as  he  heard  and  reported  it,  the  priest 
of  the  Skull  bundle  ran  to  the  place,  bearing  the  sacred 
bow  and  two  arrows.  The  two  chiefs  had  stationed 
themselves  at  the  points  where  the  uprights  of  the 
scaffold  were  to  stand,  and  the  priest  shot  an  arrow 
into  the  ground  in  front  of  each  of  them,  thus  marking 
the  place  where  the  hole  was  to  be  dug.  Between 
these  arrows  four  priests  then  dug  away  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  about  a  foot,  making  a  rectangular  pit  ap- 

[31] 


12  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

proximately  the  size  of  the  wrapper  of  a  sacred  bundle 
when  fully  unfolded.  The  floor  of  the  excavation  was 
then  covered  with  white,  downy  feathers.  This  pit  was 
called  kusaru,  and  represented  the  garden  which  the 
Evening  Star  kept  in  the  west,  or,  according  to  another 
account,  the  reproductive  organs  of  the  Evening  Star. 
The  white  feathers  with  which  it  was  lined  symbolized 
the  milk  of  women  and  animals  and  the  juice  of  young 
corn.  After  the  pit  had  been  completed,  the  holes  for 
the  uprights  of  the  scaffold  were  dug  by  two  young 
girls. 

While  the  digging  was  going  on,  the  party  sent 
after  the  timbers  had  returned.  The  two  uprights  of 
the  scaffold  were  first  erected,  then  each  cross-bar  was 
tied  on  by  a  warrior  from  the  village  of  the  direction 
which  it  represented.  Before  tying  it,  the  warrior 
would  recount  some  deed.  One  would  say,  "I  made  a 
sacrifice  of  meat  and  carried  it  to  the  priest  on  my 
back.  After  the  ceremony  was  performed,  the  priest 
whispered  to  me,  'You,  young  man,  have  brought  meat 
here  by  means  of  the  pack  string.  You  will  have  an 
opportunity  before  the  summer  is  over  to  lasso  a  pony 
in  the  enemy's  country.  The  gods  now  know  you.  Do 
not  fear  to  go  on  the  war  path.'  I  went.  We  found  a 
village,  and  others  became  afraid  and  ran.  I  went  east 
by  myself  and  found  the  enemy's  horses.  I  went  among 
them  and  found  one  with  an  eagle-wing  fan  tied  to  its 
tail.  I  captured  it  and  rode  home.  Since  then  I  have 
made  many  sacrifices."  The  top  cross-bar  was  tied  by 
two  men  each  of  whom  had  made  a  sacrifice,  but  these 
did  not  recount  any  adventures  in  war. 

It  is  probable  that  the  scaffold  was  also  painted 
at  this  time,  although  the  ceremonies  connected  with 
the  painting  are  not  remembered.  The  two  uprights 
were  painted  red  and  black,  the  former  symbolizing 
day,  and  the  latter,  night.  The  lowest  cross-bar  was 

[32] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  13 

black,  and  symbolized  the  northeast;  and  its  animal 
guardian,  the  bear.  The  second  was  red,  symboliz- 
ing the  southeast  and  the  wolf.  The  third  was  yellow, 
symbolizing  the  northwest  and  the  mountain  lion ;  and 
the  fourth  white,  symbolizing  the  southwest  and  the 
wildcat.  The  top  cross-bar  represented  the  west,  and 
was  painted  blue  or  black  and  white,  symbolizing  clouds 
and  rain. 

By  the  time  the  scaffold  was  completed,  it  was 
about  sunset,  and  the  people  dispersed.  All  spectators 
were  sent  out  of  the  lodge,  and  the  door  was  closed. 
The  chief  priest  then  drew  upon  the  floor  of  the 
lodge  four  circles,  one  for  each  of  the  world  quarters, 
and  outlined  them  with  white  downy  feathers.  Each 
of  these  circles  represented  a  region  penetrated  by  the 
Morning  Star  in  his  search  for  the  Evening  Star  and 
also  the  magic  animal  which  he  had  overcome  there. 
The  white  feathers  symbolized  the  foam  about  their 
mouths  when  they  attacked  him.  When  the  circles  had 
been  made,  the  spectators  were  re-admitted,  and  the 
priests  sang  a  song  descriptive  of  the  journey  of  the 
Morning  Star,  while  the  chief  priest  danced  around 
the  lodge  with  a  war  club,  destroying  the  circles  one 
by  one.  When  the  song  was  finished,  he  straightened 
up  and  said,  "Chiefs,  priests,  warriors,  old  men,  I  have 
destroyed  the  regions  once  controlled  by  the  mysterious 
woman  who  wanted  darkness  forever.  These  animals 
were  under  her  control,  when  the  Morning  Star 
traveled  in  darkness  looking  for  her.  She  placed  an 
obstacle  in  the  southeast,  which  was  controlled  by  the 
wolf.  The  Morning  Star  destroyed  this  obstacle,  but 
preserved  the  mysterious  animal.  He  continued  his 
journey,  traveled  to  the  southwest,  and  again  met  an 
obstacle  which  he  destroyed,  but  preserved  the  animal, 
a  wildcat.  He  continued  his  journey,  and  when  he  came 
to  the  northwest,  he  again  met  an  obstacle.  He  des- 

[33] 


14  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

troyed  it,  but  preserved  the  animal,  a  mountain  lion. 
He  went  on  to  the  northeast,  and  again  destroyed  an  ob- 
stacle, but  preserved  its  guardian,  the  bear.  In  the  cen- 
ter of  the  earth  in  darkness  he  found  the  woman,  con- 
quered her,  touched  her  with  his  war  club,  and  turned 
her  into  the  earth.  The  Morning  Star  then  called  the 
mysterious  animals  to  him  and  said,  "You  beings  are 
now  under  my  control.  Stand  in  the  places  where  I 
found  you,  and  watch  over  the  people  who  shall  be 
placed  upon  the  earth  and  guard  them.  All  powers  you 
have  you  shall  keep.  You  shall  exist  as  long  as  the  earth 
lasts.  You  are  now  placed  as  upright  posts  so  that  you 
will  always  hold  up  the  heavens.  Priests,  chiefs,  war- 
riors, old  men,  I  have  this  night  followed  the  journey 
of  the  Morning  Star.  We  will  not  forget  these  beings 
which  he  placed  in  the  four  directions,  for  he  promised 
that  they  should  partake  of  all  offerings  which  the 
people  made  to  the  heavens.  Let  us  begin  singing  the 
songs  given  to  us  by  Mother  White  Star  in  the  west 
(the  Evening  Star) ." 

When  the  chief  priest  had  finished  his  speech,  all 
began  to  sing  the  prescribed  songs,  resting  and  smok- 
ing informally  after  each.  Like  most  ceremonial  songs, 
these  were  long,  with  many  repetitions,  and  were  often 
obscure  in  meaning.  As  each  song  was  finished,  a  tally 
stick,  taken  from  a  bunch  kept  in  the  sacred  bundle, 
was  laid  down.  The  idea  underlying  this  part  of  the 
ritual  seems  to  have  been  that  the  girl  at  first  belonged 
to  the  people  and  to  the  world  of  human  affairs,  but 
that,  as  each  song  was  sung,  she  became  more  removed 
from  them  until,  when  the  last  tally  was  laid  down,  she 
had  been  won  from  the  people,  like  a  prize  in  a  game, 
and  belonged  to  the  gods. 

The  singing  usually  lasted  until  about  two  hours 
before  dawn.  A  priest  then  climbed  on  the  roof  of  the 
lodge  and  announced  to  the  people  that  the  girl  was 

[34] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  15 

about  to  be  prepared  for  the  sacrifice,  and  that  it  was 
time  for  everyone  to  set  out  for  the  scaffold.  The  chief 
priest  undressed  the  girl,  went  through  the  motions  of 
washing  her  and  combing  her  hair,  and  painted  the 
right  half  of  her  body  red  and  the  left  half  black.  Her 
skirt  was  then  replaced,  black  moccasins  were  put  on 
her  feet,  and  a  black  robe  fastened  around  her  should- 
ers. Lastly  a  head-dress  of  twelve  black-tipped  eagle 
feathers,  arranged  like  a  fan,  was  fastened  on  her 
head. 

When  the  girl  had  been  dressed,  all  resumed  their 
seats  and  sang  another  song  at  the  conclusion  of  which 
she  was  told  to  rise ;  and  two  men,  chosen  to  lead  her  to 
the  scaffold,  came  forward  and  placed  thongs  around 
her  wrists.  All  then  passed  out  of  the  lodge,  with  the 
girl  in  the  lead  and  the  priests  following  behind  chant- 
ing. 

The  rate  at  which  the  procession  moved  toward 
the  scaffold  depended  largely  upon  the  disposition  of 
the  girl.  Everything  was  done  to  conceal  the  truth 
from  her,  and  force  was  not  used  unless  absolutely  nec- 
essary. If  she  mounted  the  scaffold  of  her  own  free 
will,  it  was  considered  an  especially  auspicious  omen. 
The  procession  was  timed  to  reach  the  scaffold  a  few 
minutes  before  the  Morning  Star  rose,  so  that  the  men 
who  tied  her  to  it  could  complete  their  work  and  leave 
her  alone  when  the  star  appeared. 

While  the  girl  was  being  tied  to  the  scaffold,  the 
men  chosen  for  the  last  rites  had  assembled  in  the 
ravine  to  the  east  of  it,  where  they  were  concealed  from 
her  view.  A  small  fire  was  kindled  there,  and  they 
prepared  their  paraphernalia.  At  the  moment  the 
Morning  Star  appeared,  two  men  came  forward  bear- 
ing firebrands.  They  were  dressed  as  priests,  and  had 
owl  skins  hung  from  their  necks,  showing  that  they 
represented  the  messengers  of  the  Morning  Star. 

[35] 


16  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

They  took  their  places  on  either  side  of  the  girl,  and 
with  their  brands  touched  her  lightly  in  the  groin  and 
armpit.  They  then  returned  to  the  ravine,  and  a  third 
man  ran  out,  carrying  the  bow  from  the  Skull  bundle 
and  a  sacred  arrow  made  for  the  sacrifice.  As  he 
came,  he  gave  his  war  cry,  and  the  people  called  to  him 
and  encouraged  him  as  though  he  was  attacking  an 
enemy.  Coming  close  to  the  girl,  he  sent  his  arrow 
through  her  heart,  and  ran  back  to  the  ravine.  This 
part  was  usually  taken  by  the  man  who  had  captured 
her.  A  fourth  man  then  came  forward  with  the  club 
from  the  Morning  Star  bundle  and  struck  the  girl  on 
the  head. 

A  fire  had  been  kindled  to  the  southeast  of  the 
scaffold,  and  as  soon  as  the  girl  was  dead,  her  guar- 
dian came  forward  with  a  flint  knife,  and  her  captor 
with  the  dried  heart  and  tongue  of  a  buffalo.  The 
guardian  mounted  the  scaffold  and  cut  open  the  body, 
while  the  captor  held  the  meat  below  and  caught  the 
blood.  The  guardian  thrust  his  hand  into  the  thoracic 
cavity  and  painted  his  face  with  the  blood.  Sometimes 
he  is  said  to  have  removed  her  liver  and  given  it  to  the 
members  of  the  Bear  Medicine  Society,  who  cut  it  into 
small  pieces  and  ate  it  to  acquire  magical  powers.  The 
blood-soaked  meat  was  burned  on  the  fire  near  the 
scaffold  as  an  offering  to  all  the  gods. 

When  these  rites  had  been  performed,  the  men 
among  the  spectators  gave  their  war  cries  and  crowded 
forward  to  shoot  arrows  into  the  body.  It  was  thought 
desirable  that  as  many  arrows  should  be  shot  as  there 
were  males  in  the  tribe,  and  boys  too  young  to  draw  a 
bow  were  helped  by  their  fathers  or  mothers.  When 
each  man  had  shot  his  arrow,  the  spectators  dispersed 
and  returned  to  the  villages  where  feasting  and  danc- 
ing continued  for  three  days. 

The  priests,  the  guardian,  and  those  intimately 

[36] 


SACRIFICE  TO  THE  MORNING  STAR  17 

connected  with  the  ceremony  remained  at  the  scaffold. 
When  the  crowd  had  gone,  the  guardian  removed  the 
arrows  from  the  body  one  by  one  and  handed  them  to 
an  assistant  who  divided  them  into  four  bundles  and 
laid  these  bundles  northeast,  northwest,  southeast, 
and  southwest  of  the  fireplace.  The  body  was  then 
taken  down  and  carried  a  short  distance  to  the 
east  of  the  scaffold,  where  it  was  laid  face  down.  The 
sacred  arrow  was  drawn  from  its  heart  and  laid  upon 
it.  All  then  returned  to  the  village,  and  the  place  was 
avoided  for  some  time. 

It  was  believed  that  the  soul  of  the  girl  left  her 
body  at  the  moment  she  was  struck  with  the  club  and 
went  straight  to  Tirawa,  who  sent  it  to  the  Morning 
Star.  The  Morning  Star  clothed  it  with  flint  from  his 
fireplace  in  the  dawn  and  placed  it  among  the  stars  in 
the  heavens.  Her  body  was  thought  to  be  not  like  or- 
dinary bodies.  Even  after  her  death  it  possessed  life. 
Things  would  be  born  from  it,  and  the  earth  would  be 
fertilized  by  it. 

The  sacrifice  as  a  whole  must  be  considered  as  a 
dramatization  of  the  overcoming  of  the  Evening  Star 
by  the  Morning  Star  and  their  subsequent  connection, 
from  which  sprang  all  life  on  earth.  The  girl  upon 
the  scaffold  seems  to  have  been  conceived  of  as  a  per- 
sonification or  embodiment  of  the  Evening  Star  sur- 
rounded by  her  powers.  When  she  was  overcome,  the 
life  of  the  earth  was  renewed,  insuring  universal  fer- 
tility and  increase. 

Human  sacrifices  were  rare  among  the  North 
American  Indians.  The  practice  is  known  to  have 
existed  among  the  Natchez,  who  lived  in  the  present 
state  of  Mississippi,  and  possibly  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico.  In  Mexico,  on  the  other  hand,  the  idea  was 
highly  developed,  and  under  the  Aztec  rule  large  num- 
bers of  victims  were  immolated  every  year.  It  may  be 

[37] 


18  FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

significant  that  several  of  the  practices  and  concepts 
connected  with  the  Pawnee  sacrifice  find  Mexican  para- 
llels. Early  Aztec  manuscripts  show  victims  fastened 
to  scaffolds  like  that  used  by  the  Pawnee  and  shot  to 
death  with  arrows.  In  both  places  the  body  of  the  vic- 
tim was  cut  open,  and  the  blood  offered.  The  idea  that 
the  sacrifice  was  more  acceptable  if  the  victim  mounted 
the  scaffold  willingly  was  common  to  both,  together 
with  the  still  more  striking  idea  that  the  victim  was  a 
personification  of  a  deity.  Among  the  Aztecs  this  con- 
cept reached  its  highest  development,  the  victim  in  at 
least  one  ceremony  being  treated  as  a  god  for  a  year 
before  his  sacrifice.  Finally,  in  both  places  there  seem 
to  have  been  astronomical  beliefs  connected  with  the 
sacrifices. 

This  account  has  been  compiled  from  the  unpub- 
lished notes  of  Dr.  G.  A.  Dorsey  and  from  articles  by 
several  other  authors. 

RALPH  LINTON 


[38] 


^SIH^>**1 

ik    ^UNivtf^  ^ 


CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

University  of  California,  San  Diego 


JP^ 
/= 


.* 


I    •WBW^ 

ilBK^; 


' 


